Amphihaline species (Ref. 51442), schooling and strongly migratory, but apparently not penetrating far up rivers (Ref. 188, 6683). Adults are usually found in open waters along the coast (Refs. 59043, 89486); juveniles are usually found along estuaries and near the shore (Ref. 59043), possibly making vertical diurnal movements synchronized with the tides; they remain in estuaries for over one year (Ref. 89630). Several landlocked (lake) non-migratory populations exist (Ref. 10541). Mostly anadromous, entering river mouths in March (Italy) or early June (northenr European rivers) to spawn in or above the tidal reaches; adults probably return to sea not long after spawning (Ref. 188, 6683). Eggs are demersal and widely scattered among sand or gravel on river bed (Ref. 118, 6683). Ichthyophagous, feeds on small fishes and crustaceans, the young taking the fry of herrings, sprats and gobies (Ref. 188, 51442). Females grow faster and are always larger than males of the same age (Ref. 10541). Very locally distributed due to pollution and impoundment of large rivers throughout Europe and most populations declined during the first decade of the 20th century, but seem to have stabilized at a low level since then (Ref. 59043). It has been suggested that members of the genus Alosa are hearing specialists with the American shad (Alosa sapidissima) having been found to detect and respond to sounds up to at least 180 kHz (Ref. 89631). This may aid in predator avoidance (e.g. cetaceans) (Ref. 89632). Hybridization between this species and the allis shad (Alosa alosa) has been reported from the Rhine (Ref. 89633) as well as rivers in France and Algeria (Ref. 10541). There is some evidence that indicates that shad hybrids may reproduce (Ref. 27567).
Amphihaline 種 (參考文獻 51442) ,群游性與強烈的迴游性, 但是顯然地不穿透在河川最上游.(參考文獻 188) 在五月或六月初中進入河川中有潮汐的河段在那裡或稍微向上產卵.(參考文獻 188, 參考文獻 51442) 產卵發生在晚上在沙地或礫石上面, 在一個 15-20 ° C. 的溫差 成魚在產卵之後返回大海, 而且稍後可以回到產卵第二個或第三個次.(參考文獻 51442) 卵是底棲的, 散佈在礫石或沙子.(參考文獻 188) 當他們發育的時候,魚苗沿河而下。 (參考文獻 188) 常吃魚的, 吃小魚與甲殼動物,幼魚捕食鯡魚,鯡魚與鰕虎魚的魚苗.(參考文獻 188, 參考文獻 51442) 蒙受河川污染與在某些程度上從河川人為障礙.(參考文獻 188) 在 3-4 年的一個年齡時性成熟而且在 30-40 公分的長度時性成熟。 (參考文獻 35388)
Preferred temperature (Ref.
115969): 8.7 - 19.3, mean 10.8 (based on 522 cells).
Phylogenetic diversity index (Ref.
82804): PD
50 = 0.5000 [Uniqueness, from 0.5 = low to 2.0 = high].
Bayesian length-weight: a=0.00603 (0.00504 - 0.00720), b=3.03 (2.99 - 3.07), in cm Total Length, based on LWR estimates for this species (Ref.
93245).
營養階層 (Ref.
69278): 4.0 ±0.4 se; based on diet studies.
回復力 (Ref.
120179): 中等的, 族群倍增時間最少 1.4 - 4.4年 (K=0.21-0.38; tm=2-7; tmax=25; Fec>10,000).
Fishing Vulnerability (Ref.
59153): Moderate to high vulnerability (50 of 100).
Climate Vulnerability (Ref.
125649): Moderate vulnerability (44 of 100).