Amphihaline species, schooling and strongly migratory, penetrating far up rivers but not into small tributaries (Refs. 188, 59043). Adults are usually found in open waters along the coast (Ref. 51442). In freshwater, inhabits major rivers but may also enter tributaries, if water temperature is equal to or is warmer than the main river (Ref. 188, 10536). Known lake populations from Morocco and Portugal need access to rivers to spawn (Refs. 10536, 89647, 89648). Larvae and small juveniles inhabit deep slow-flowing areas of rivers (Ref. 89649), some swimming upstream in late summer and autumn (Ref. 10536). Juveniles (up to 1+ years) are usually found near estuaries or river mouths (Refs. 10536, 59043), possibly making vertical diurnal movements synchronized with the tides; they remain in estuaries for over one year (Ref. 89630). Feeds on a wide range of planktonic crustaceans; larger adults feed on small schooling fishes (Ref. 188, 51442, 59043). Juveniles in freshwater prey on insect larvae. Females in European rivers commonly reach 70 cm total length (Ref. 10536). Females grow faster and are always larger than males of the same age (Ref. 10536). Less common than Alosa fallax but both have suffered from pollution and weirs or other obstructions (Ref. 188). It has been suggested that members of the genus Alosa are hearing specialists with the American shad (Alosa sapidissima) having been found to detect and respond to sounds up to at least 180 kHz (Ref. 89631). This may aid in predator avoidance (e.g. cetaceans) (Ref. 89632). Hybridization with the twaite shad (Alosa fallax) has been reported from the Rhine (Ref. 89633) as well as from rivers in France and Algeria (Ref. 10536). Shad hybrids may reproduce (Ref. 27567). Marketed fresh and frozen; eaten sautéed, broiled, fried and baked (Ref. 9988).
Amphihaline 種, 在海洋中度過它大部分的生活期.(參考文獻 51442) 群游性而強烈的迴游性種, 穿透在河川最上游, 但是不進入小的支流之內.(參考文獻 188) 五月時進入河中產卵, 通常在晚上與水流是迅急的地方.(參考文獻 188) 迴游成魚不進食。 (參考文獻 30578) 成魚在產卵此時稚魚之後返回大海移動秋天時向下至海洋.(參考文獻 188) 吃寬範圍的浮游性甲殼動物; 較大的成魚吃小的群游性魚。 (參考文獻 188, 參考文獻 51442) 比 Alosa fallax不普遍但是兩者已經蒙受污染與魚樑或其他的障礙.(參考文獻 188) 在市場上銷售生鮮和冷凍; 吃煎炒, 火烤了, 油炸了而且燒烤了.(參考文獻 9988)
Preferred temperature (Ref.
115969): 7 - 15.6, mean 10.1 (based on 480 cells).
Phylogenetic diversity index (Ref.
82804): PD
50 = 0.5000 [Uniqueness, from 0.5 = low to 2.0 = high].
Bayesian length-weight: a=0.00708 (0.00569 - 0.00881), b=3.05 (3.01 - 3.09), in cm Total Length, based on LWR estimates for this species (Ref.
93245).
營養階層 (Ref.
69278): 3.0 ±0.2 se; based on diet studies.
回復力 (Ref.
120179): 中等的, 族群倍增時間最少 1.4 - 4.4年 (K=0.19-0.29; tm=3.5; tmax=10).
Fishing Vulnerability (Ref.
59153): Moderate vulnerability (36 of 100).
Climate Vulnerability (Ref.
125649): Moderate to high vulnerability (47 of 100).
